|
|
马上注册，结交更多同城好友，享用更多功能！
您需要 登录 才可以下载或查看，没有帐号？立即注册
x
http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh/%E7%99%BD%E6%BE%B3%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Australia_policy
第一任总理埃德蒙·巴顿宣称“人类平等的原则只适用于英国人之间，英国人跟中国人之间则不遵循这条原则。”
澳洲土著，亚非裔和其他所有非白种人都是1901年“白澳政策”的受害者。当时首任总理 Edmund Barton 提议所有移民申请者必须通过50个单词的听写测试，变相将所有非欧洲人拒之门外。最终该法案得以通过，史称『白澳政策』。
白澳政策（英文：White Australia Policy）是澳大利亚联邦反亚洲移民的种族主义政策的通称。1901年，白澳政策正式确立为基本国策，只许白人移民流入。在此政策下，大部分[來源請求]华人忍受不了欺压，被迫离开澳大利亚。1972年澳大利亚工党政府取消了白澳政策。
目录 [隐藏]
1 背景与起因
2 政策的实行
3 政策的消亡
4 影响
5 参看
[编辑]背景与起因
该政策的源头可以追溯到1850年代，当时有一大批中国人受“淘金热”的吸引移民到澳大利亚。许多英裔澳大利亚人埋怨中国人的到來引致工資水平下降，同时迁怒于他们带来的中国文化传统，遂连续发生了许多起排华暴乱（诸如Lambing Flat 暴乱）。刚建立起的以白人为主的自治政府亦持排华态度，陆续制定出一系列限制中国人移民的法案。到1888年，所有澳洲殖民地不再接受中国移民。第一任总理埃德蒙·巴顿宣称“人类平等的原则只适用于英国人之间，英国人跟中国人之间则不遵循这条原则。”该政策的另一源头是阻止美拉尼西亚人（被蔑称为“Kanaka”）进入昆士兰的甘蔗园工作。当时因为许多医学专家认为白人的体质不适合从事这种热带地区的工作（恐怕低廉的成本和温顺的性格才是引入美拉尼西亚人的主要原因），故引进了很多美拉尼西亚廉價劳工。也有些美拉尼西亚人是被劫掠到澳洲的（这种行为白人自己戏称“捉黑鸟”）。为了阻止这种行为的继续以及非欧劳力的继续涌入，1890年代有大约7000美拉尼西亚劳工被政府驱逐，随后政府和工會达成协议，只允许白人劳力从事农场的工作。这项政策的基本意图是保持种族的“纯净”。“为了保证澳洲一直不受低等人种的污染和劣化，我将采取任何必要的措施。”（英联邦议会纪录，1901年9月12日，4845页）工會和它操持的政党澳大利亚工党是白澳政策的主要促动者。克里斯·沃森（时任工党领袖）宣称，“我反对将有色种人与白人混杂的──当然我承认它跟工业化有关──主要由于种族污染的可能性。”
白澳洲人普遍相信种族纯净有助于保持经济和社会的稳定。“澳洲的统一将毫无意义，如果不是用在一个统一的种族上。一个统一的种族不仅意味着它的成员可以相互混杂、通婚、相互交流而不招致退化，还意味着相信同一个观念……”（阿尔弗雷德·狄金，英联邦议会纪录，1901年9月12日，4807页）。其它有关种族纯净的观点参看“被偷走的一代”。对中国移民的敌视可从“黄祸”一詞中反映，而这种态度在澳洲最为明显。1901年的澳大利亚人口为三百七十万，跟亚洲相差很远，所以有人“担心”中国移民的湧入会“吞没”欧裔澳人。联邦政府担心难以控制的移民潮流会大幅度降低工资水平，这不是无稽之谈：许多雇主公开声称他们会那样做。这种情绪在亨利·劳森（澳大利亚著名诗人）1906年写的一首诗“to be amused”中反映。
[编辑]政策的实行
1901年，新的联邦政府所进行的第一项立法举措，就是通过了臭名昭著的移民限制法以便“在移民问题上作出一些限制……以清除……非法移民”，南非已有类似的移民限制法案。最早的草案明令禁止非欧洲移民的进入，但由于英国政府出于对在印度的权益和与日本的关系的考虑的反对，巴顿政府只得取消这种公开的规定，代之以“听力测验”来排除不要的移民。移民官员有权阻止任何未在一项五十个词的听力测验（考方可使用任何一门欧洲语言）上达标的移民申请者。
当时，澳大利亚不是唯一采取这种移民政策的英国属地，白人们相信种族之间有天生的差异，并认为自己的种族优于其他。这种观点常常导致带有种族歧视的政策出台，比如吉姆·克劳法案。南非、加拿大和新西兰甚至美国在19世纪末20世纪初都有不同程度的种族限制移民政策。1905年的英国政府通过了有利于犹太移民的法案。澳大利亚士兵在1919年参与了攻击卡迪夫市黑种英裔社区的事件。
[编辑]政策的消亡
按照1950年的科伦坡计划，亚洲国家的学生可以到澳大利亚的大学念书，这一举措有助于瓦解歧视非白裔种族的态度。到1957年，居住在澳洲15年以上的非白裔人口已有资格取得公民权，而1958年的移民法废除了听力测试，代之以更简单的入境考核。
1966年3月，在回顾了过去的非欧洲移民政策后，移民局长胡伯特·欧佩尔曼说，那些条件适合、被认为能够马上融入澳洲文化且会对澳国发展有所助益的非欧裔申请人将被许可移民到澳洲。
与此同时，霍尔特的自由党政府选定了一批有“暂住资格”的非欧裔澳人，这些人在五年后（同欧裔移民一样）可以按自愿成为永久住民和澳国公民。
白澳政策的真正有效废除通常被认为在1973年，当惠特兰的工党在移民法中增加了一系列阻止强化种族观点的修正案后。这些修正案确保了所有移民无论出生都有权在居住三年之后获取公民权，并认可所有关于移民与种族的国际协定。1975年的种族歧视法案则使得官方制定的带有种族色彩的规则为非法。
直到1978年，弗雷色政府对移民法的修正才最终将按出生国家选择移民的政策完全废除。最近的移民有很多来自中国和印度，虽然英国和新西兰的移民仍占绝大多数比重。
[编辑]影响
今天的澳洲人大部分属于欧裔，约占总人口的85%的，其中又以英裔最多（33.9%），然后是爱尔兰裔（10.2%）、意裔（4.3%）、德裔（4.0%）、苏格兰裔（2.9%）和希腊裔（2.0%）。剩下的有12%是亚裔（包括土耳其、阿拉伯、伊朗、南亚次大陆、东南亚和东亚的移民），还有3%是本土原住民及其他。
澳大利亚统计局预测，到2100年，英-爱裔的澳人所占比重将会大幅度下降，因为新移民的生育率相对较高。
本地澳大利亚人生育率的下降使得移民的种族限制有成为某些政治团体的话题，诸如單一民族黨（One Nation），1980、90年代，他们主要針對东亚和东南亚移民。许多人将單一民族黨的胜利视作白澳政策的再度抬头。近年来，这种情结的指向则部分转移到中东地区的移民。2005年悉尼的种族暴乱被认为是多元文化政策的结果，也有人认为是多元文化政策的缺少所造成的。
然而，从大众的讨论中可以看到白澳政策更深远的影响。许多政治集团都公开声称白澳政策不是种族政策，这种断言的根据是认为非欧洲种族比欧洲种族要劣等，当然对经济竞争和失去白人的主导控制权也是其理由之一。事实上，在白澳政策的高峰期，许多澳大利亚政治家，如同他们的南非“同仁”一样，将反对的声音用上述的理由打发。比如，总理埃德蒙·巴顿声称，“我不认为人类平等的原则包括种族平等。种族间是没有平等的，只有根本上的不平等。那些种族同我们白种人相比是较低劣的……”
像许多其它英国殖民地一样，澳大利亚是作为白人殖民地而建立的，后者逐渐取代了本土居民。此外，它的四邻五舍大多是非欧洲国家。20世纪八、九十年代，政府和媒体往往提倡的观点，比如澳大利亚共和国、同本地人的和谐相处、多元文化主义和亚太地区（澳洲被认为是其一部分）。而一些保守的澳人则讥笑这些说，澳大利亚是一个以欧洲移民为基础的西方国家。约翰·霍华德未成為總理時，在1988年曾經提出限制亞裔移民進入的「一個澳洲」政策，引起爭議。
在海外，也在澳大利亚，任何轻微的种族主义偏向都会被人以历史的眼光打量，比如关于單一民族黨創立人寶琳·韓森的报道、太平洋解决方案（澳国政府的一项驱逐避难者的政策）、沙培利·科尔比在印尼的审判和2005年在悉尼的种族暴乱。此外，工党领袖马克·兰萨姆，在他的著作《兰萨姆日记》中提到ANZUS联盟是白澳政策的后继，意在影射澳大利亚、新西兰和美国的军事联盟是以种族主义为基本原则和目的而建立的。
The White Australia policy comprises various historical policies that intentionally restricted "non-white" immigration to Australia from 1901 to 1973.
Competition in the goldfields, labour disputes and Australian nationalism created an environment of racial antagonism during the second half of the 19th century which led to the passage of the Immigration Restriction Act in 1901, one of the first Acts of the new national parliament upon federation. The passage of this bill is considered the commencement of the White Australia Policy as Australian government policy. Subsequent acts further strengthened the policy up to the start of World War II.
The policy was dismantled in stages by several successive governments after the conclusion of World War II, with the encouragement of first non-British and later non-white immigration. From 1973 on, the White Australia policy was for all practical purposes defunct, and in 1975 the Australian government passed the Racial Discrimination Act, which made racially-based selection criteria illegal.
Contents [hide]
1 Immigration policy prior to Federation
1.1 Gold Rush era
1.2 Support from the Australian labour movement
2 From Federation to World War II
2.1 Federation Convention and Australia's first government
2.2 Immigration Restriction Act 1901
2.3 The Paris Peace Conference
2.4 Stanley Bruce
3 Abolition of the policy
3.1 World War II
3.2 Relaxation of restrictions
3.3 End of the White Australia Policy
4 Legacy
4.1 Contemporary demographics
4.2 Political and social legacy
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
[edit]Immigration policy prior to Federation
[edit]Gold Rush era
The discovery of gold in Australia in 1851 led to an influx of immigrants from all around the world. Over the next 20 years, 40,000 Chinese men and over 9,000 women (mostly Cantonese) immigrated to the goldfields seeking prosperity.[1]
Competition on the goldfields led to tensions between groups and eventually a series of significant protests and riots, including the Buckland Riot in 1857 and the Lambing Flat Riots between 1860 and 1861. Governor Hotham, on 16 November 1854, appointed a Royal Commission on Victorian goldfields problems and grievances. This led to restrictions being placed on Chinese immigration and residency taxes levied from Chinese residents in Victoria from 1855 with New South Wales following suit in 1861. These restrictions remained in force until the early 1870s.[2]
[edit]Support from the Australian labour movement
The growth of the sugar industry in Queensland in the 1870s led to searching for labourers prepared to work in a tropical environment. During this time, thousands of "Kanakas" (Pacific Islanders) were brought into Australia as indentured workers.[3] This and related practices of bringing in non-white labour to be cheaply employed was commonly termed "blackbirding" and refers to the recruitment of people through trickery and kidnappings to work on plantations, particularly the sugar cane plantations of Queensland (Australia) and Fiji.[4] In the 1870s and 1880s, the trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions and refused unionisation.[1]
Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas.[1] It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the Northern Territory and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned.[3] Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875–1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation which excluded all further Chinese immigration.[3] Asian immigrants already residing in the Australian colonies were not expelled and retained the same rights as their Anglo and Southern compatriots.
Agreements were made to further increase these restrictions in 1895 following an Inter-colonial Premier's Conference where all colonies agreed to extend entry restrictions to all non-white races. However, in attempting to enact this legislation, the Governors of New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania reserved the bills, due to a treaty with Japan, and they did not become law. Instead, the Natal Act of 1897 was introduced, restricting "undesirable persons" rather than any specific race.[1]
The British government in London was not pleased with legislation that discriminated against certain subjects of its Empire, but decided not to disallow the laws that were passed. Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain explained in 1897:
"We quite sympathise with the determination...of these colonies...that there should not be an influx of people alien in civilisation, alien in religion, alien in customs, whose influx, moreover, would seriously interfere with the legitimate rights of the existing labouring population."[5]
[edit]From Federation to World War II
[edit]Federation Convention and Australia's first government
Immigration was a prominent topic in the lead up to Australian Federation. At the Federation Convention, Western Australian premier and future federal cabinet member, John Forrest, summarised the prevailing feeling:[4]
[It is] of no use to shut our eyes to the fact that there is a great feeling all over Australia against the introduction of coloured persons. It goes without saying that we do not like to talk about it, but it is so.
The government following Federation in 1901 was formed by the Protectionist Party with the support of the Australian Labor Party. The support of the Labor Party was contingent upon restricting non-white immigration, reflecting the attitudes of the Australian Worker's Union and other labour organisations at the time, upon whose support the Labor Party was founded.
[edit]Immigration Restriction Act 1901
Main article: Immigration Restriction Act 1901
The new Federal Parliament, as one of its first pieces of legislation, passed the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 to "place certain restrictions on immigration and... for the removal... of prohibited immigrants". The Act drew on similar legislation in South Africa. Edmund Barton, the prime minister, argued in support of the Bill with the following statement: "The doctrine of the equality of man was never intended to apply to the equality of the Englishman and the Chinaman."
The chief architect of the policy, Alfred Deakin, believed that the Japanese and Chinese[6] might be a threat to the newly formed federation and it was this belief that led to legislation to ensure they would be kept out:
"It is not the bad qualities, but the good qualities of these alien races that make them so dangerous to us. It is their inexhaustible energy, their power of applying themselves to new tasks, their endurance and low standard of living that make them such competitors." [7]
Early drafts of the Act explicitly banned non-Europeans from migrating to Australia but objections from the British government, which feared that such a measure would offend British subjects in India and Britain's allies in Japan, caused the Barton government to remove this wording. Instead, a "dictation test" was introduced as a device for excluding unwanted immigrants. Immigration officials were given the power to exclude any person who failed to pass a 50-word dictation test. At first this was to be in any European language, but was later changed to include any language. The tests were written in such a way to make them nearly impossible to pass.
In 1902 the Australian parliament passed the Pacific Island Labourers Act. The result of this legislation was that 7,500 Pacific Islanders (called "Kanakas") working mostly on plantations in Queensland were deported and entry into Australia by Pacific Islanders after 1904 was prohibited.
[edit]The Paris Peace Conference
At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference following World War I, Japan sought to include a racial equality clause in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Japanese policy reflected their desire to remove or to ease the immigration restrictions against Japanese (especially in the United States and Canada), which Japan regarded as a humiliation and affront to its prestige.
Australia was one of few countries which had race as a dominant political ideology at the time. As such, Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes vehemently opposed Japan's racial equality proposition. Hughes recognised that such a clause would be a threat to White Australia and made it clear to British Prime Minister David Lloyd George that he would leave the conference if the clause was adopted. When the proposal failed, Hughes reported in the Australian parliament:
"The White Australia is yours. You may do with it what you please, but at any rate, the soldiers have achieved the victory and my colleagues and I have brought that great principle back to you from the conference, as safe as it was on the day when it was first adopted."[8]
[edit]Stanley Bruce
Australian Prime Minister Stanley Bruce was a supporter of the White Australia Policy, and made it an issue in his campaign for the 1925 Australian Federal election.[9]
“ It is necessary that we should determine what are the ideals towards which every Australian would desire to strive. I think those ideals might well be stated as being to secure our national safety, and to ensure the maintenance of our White Australia Policy to continue as an integral portion of the British Empire.[9] We intend to keep this country white and not allow its peoples to be faced with the problems that at present are practically insoluble in many parts of the world."[10] ”
—Prime Minister Stanley Bruce during his 1925 election campaign speech
[edit]Abolition of the policy
[edit]World War II
Between the Great Depression starting in 1929 and the end of World War II in 1945, global conditions kept immigration to very low levels.[11] At the start of the war, Prime Minister John Curtin (ALP) reinforced the message of the White Australia Policy by saying: "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race."[12]
However, by the end of World War II, Australia's vulnerability during the war in the Pacific and small population led to policies summarised by the slogan, "Populate or Perish", an ethnocentric slogan that meant "Fill with whites, lest we be filled with yellows".[13] During the war, many non-white refugees, including Malays, Indonesians, and Filipinos, had settled in Australia, but Immigration Minister Arthur Calwell controversially sought to have them all deported. In 1948, Iranian Bahá'ís seeking to immigrate to Australia were classified as "Asiatic" by the policy and were denied entry.[14] In 1949, Calwell's successor Harold Holt allowed the remaining 800 non-white refugees to apply for residency, and also allowed Japanese "war brides" to settle in Australia.[12] In the meantime, encouraging immigration from Europe, Australia admitted large numbers of immigrants from mostly Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia, as well as its traditional source of the British Isles.
[edit]Relaxation of restrictions
Australian policy began to shift towards significantly increasing immigration. Legislative changes over the next few decades continuously opened up immigration in Australia.[11]
1947 The Australian Government relaxed the Immigration Restriction Act allowing non-Europeans the right to settle permanently in Australia for business reasons.
1950 Colombo Plan, students from Asian countries were admitted to study at Australian universities.
1957 Non-Europeans with 15 years' residence in Australia were allowed to become citizens.
1958 The Revised Migration Act of 1958 abolished the dictation test and introduced a simpler system for entry.
1959 Australians were permitted to sponsor Asian spouses for citizenship.
1964 Conditions of entry for people of non-European stock were relaxed.
After a review of the European policy in March 1966, Immigration Minister Hubert Opperman announced applications for migration would be accepted from well-qualified people on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to integrate readily and their possession of qualifications positively useful to Australia. At the same time, the Holt Liberal government decided a number of "temporary resident" non-Europeans, who were not required to leave Australia, could become permanent residents and citizens after five years (the same as for Europeans).
As a result, annual non-European settler arrivals rose from 746 in 1966 to 2,696 in 1971, while annual part-European settler arrivals rose from 1,498 to 6,054.[12]
[edit]End of the White Australia Policy
The legal end of the White Australia policy is usually placed in the year 1973, when the Whitlam Labor government implemented a series of amendments preventing the enforcement of racial aspects of the immigration law. These amendments:[12]
Legislated that all migrants, regardless of origin, be eligible to obtain citizenship after three years of permanent residence.
Ratified all international agreements relating to immigration and race.
Issued policy to totally disregard race as a factor in selecting migrants.
The 1975 Racial Discrimination Act made the use of racial criteria for any official purpose illegal.
It was not until the Fraser Liberal government's review of immigration law in 1978 that all selection of prospective migrants based on country of origin was entirely removed from official policy. Currently, a large number of Australia's immigrants are from countries such as China and India, though the United Kingdom and New Zealand respectively remain the two largest single sources of immigrants.
In 1981 the Minister for Immigration announced a Special Humanitarian Assistance Program (SHP) for Iranians to seek refuge in Australia and by 1988 some 2500 Bahá'ís and many more others had arrived in Australia through either SHP or Refugee Programs.[14] The last selective immigration policy, offering relocation assistance to British nationals, was finally removed in 1982.[15]
[edit]Legacy
[edit]Contemporary demographics
The 2001 Australian census results indicate that many Australians claim some European heritage: English 37%, Irish 11%, Italian 5%, German 4.3%, Scottish 3%, Greek 2%, Dutch 1.5%, Polish 0.9%. Australians of some non-European origin form a significant but still relatively small part of the population: Chinese 3.2%, Indian 0.9%, Lebanese 0.9%, Vietnamese 0.9%. About 2.2% identified themselves as Indigenous Australians. 39% of the population gave their ancestry as "Australian". The Australian census does not classify people according to race, only ethnic ancestry. (Note that subjects were permitted to select more than one answer for this census question.)[16]
15% of the population now speaks a language other than English at home.[17] The most commonly spoken languages are Italian, Greek, Cantonese and Arabic.
[edit]Political and social legacy
Discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity was legally sanctioned until 1975. Australia's new official policy on racial diversity is: "to build on our success as a culturally diverse, accepting and open society, united through a shared future".[18] The White Australia Policy continues to be mentioned in modern contexts, although it is generally only mentioned by politicians when denouncing their opposition. As Leader of the Opposition, John Howard, argued for restricting Asian immigration in 1988, as part of his One Australia policy, later admitting that his comments cost him his job at the time:
“ I'm not in favour of going back to a White Australia policy. I do believe that if it is – in the eyes of some in the community – that it's too great, it would be in our immediate-term interest and supporting of social cohesion if it (Asian immigration) were slowed down a little, so the capacity of the community to absorb it was greater.[19] ”
—John Howard speaking on ABC Radio PM, 1 August 1988
At its peak, Pauline Hanson's One Nation party received 9% of the national vote.[20] Pauline Hanson was widely accused of trying to take Australia back to the days of the White Australia Policy, particularly through reference to Arthur Calwell, one of the policy's strongest supporters:
“ I and most Australians want our immigration policy radically reviewed and that of multiculturalism abolished. I believe we are in danger of being swamped by Asians. Between 1984 and 1995, 40 per cent of all migrants coming into this country were of Asian origin. They have their own culture and religion, form ghettos and do not assimilate.[21] ”
—Pauline Hanson in her maiden speech to parliament
On 24 May 2007, Pauline Hanson, with her new Pauline's United Australia Party, continued her call for a freeze on immigration, arguing that African migrants carried disease into Australia.[22] Topics related to racism and immigration in Australia are still regularly connected by the media to the White Australia Policy. Some examples of issues and events where this connection has been made include: reconciliation with Aborigines; mandatory detention and the "Pacific Solution"; the 2005 Cronulla riots, and the 2009 attacks on Indians in Australia. Former opposition Labor party leader Mark Latham, in his book The Latham Diaries, described the ANZUS alliance as a legacy of the White Australia policy.
In 2007, the Howard Government introduced a citizenship test to include a tougher English language test[citation needed], and a test on "Australian" values[citation needed]. The actual questions of such citizenship test have not been publicly released[citation needed], and its future is in question given the ALP victory in the 2007 election.
Australian government policy from earlier years has been claimed to be the original impetus for the apartheid system in South Africa.[23]
[edit]See also
One Australia policy
Jarrod Glover
Eurocentrism
First white child
Racism
Eugenics in the United States
Racial equality proposal
Head tax (New Zealand)
Settler colonialism
South Sea Islanders
Sinophobia
Yellow peril
Europeans in Oceania
Head tax (Canada) and Chinese Immigration Act, 1923
Anti-Chinese legislation in the United States
Apartheid
Asian Exclusion Act in the United States
Iranian Australian and Bahá'í Faith in Australia
Casteism
[edit]References
^ a b c d Markey, Raymond (1 January 1996). "Race and organized labor in Australia, 1850–1901". Highbeam Research. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ R. Lockwood, "British Imperial Influences in the Foundation of the White Australia Policy," Labour History, No. 7 (Nov. 1964), pp. 23–33 in JSTOR
^ a b c Griffiths, Phil (4 July 2002). "Towards White Australia: The shadow of Mill and the spectre of slavery in the 1880s debates on Chinese immigration" (RTF). 11th Biennial National Conference of the Australian Historical Association. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ a b Willoughby, Emma. "Our Federation Journey 1901–2001" (PDF). Museum Victoria. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Speech to Colonial Conference of 1897, quoted in J. Holland Rose et al., eds. The Cambridge History of the British Empire: Volume VII: Part I: Australia (1933) p 411; full text
^ Culture and Customs of Australia http://books.google.com.au/books ... num=3&ct=result
^ Kay Schaffer Manne's Generation: White Nation Responses to the Stolen Generation Report Australian Humanities Review http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AH ... -2001/schaffer.html
^ "100 Years: The Australia Story. Episode 2: Rise And Fall Of White Australia". Australian Broadcasting Commission. 21 March 2001. Retrieved 29 January 2007.
^ a b "Policy Launch Speech: Stanley Bruce, Prime Minister" (PDF). Melbourne: The Age. 26 October 1925. pp. 11. Archived from the original on 2006. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ Bowen, James; Bowen, Margarita (2002). The Great Barrier Reef: History, Science, Heritage. Cambridge University Press. pp. 301. ISBN 0521824303. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ a b "Immigration to Australia During the 20th Century" (PDF). Australian Department of Immigration. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ a b c d "Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy". Australian Department of Immigration. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Western Australia, "Populate or perish"
^ a b Hassall, Graham; (ed.) Ata, Abe (1989). Religion and Ethnic Identity, An Australian Study. Melbourne: Victoria College & Spectrum. pp. Chapter "Persian Bahá'ís in Australia"
^ Jupp, Dr James. "Immigration and Citizenship" (PDF). University of Melbourne. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ "Population characteristics: Ancestry of Australia's population". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Inglis, Christine (1 December 2002). "Australia's Increasing Ethnic and Religious Diversity". Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ "MULTICULTURAL AUSTRALIA: UNITED IN DIVERSITY (SOCIAL ENGINEERING AND THE ENFORCEMENT OF DIVERSITY)" (PDF). The Australian Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Megalogenis, George (20 February 2006). "Howard hits out at 'jihad' Muslims". The Australian. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Carr, Adam. "Federal Election of 3 October 1998". Archived from the original on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Hanson, Pauline (1 September 1996). "Maiden Speech". Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ "Hanson launches campaign song". The Age (Melbourne). 5 October 2007.
^ The Electronic Journal of Australian and New Zealand History:
[edit]Further reading
Stefanie Affeldt: A Paroxysm of Whiteness. 'White' Labour, 'White' Nation and 'White' Sugar in Australia. In: Wages of Whiteness & Racist Symbolic Capital, ed. by Wulf D. Hund, Jeremy Krikler, David Roediger. Berlin: Lit 2010, pp. 99 - 131. ISBN 978-3-643-10949-1
John Bailey (2001). The White Divers of Broome. Sydney, MacMillan. ISBN 0-7329-1078-1.
Jane Doulman and David Lee (2008). Every Assistance & Protection: a History of the Australian Passport. Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade / Federation Press.
Ian Duffield (1993). Skilled Workers or Marginalised Poor? The African Population of the United Kingdom, 1812–1852. Immigrants and Minorities Vol. 12, No. 3; Frank Cass.
John Fitzgerald (2007). Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia. Sydney.
Wulf D. Hund (2006): White Australia oder der Krieg der Historiker. In: Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, 3.
Laksiri Jayasuriya, David Walker, Jan Gothard (Eds.) (2003): Legacies of White Australia. Crawley, University of Western Australia Press.
James Jupp and Maria Kabala (1993). The Politics of Australian Immigration. Australian Government Publishing Service.
Gwenda Tavan (2005). The Long, Slow Death of White Australia. Scribe.
Myra Willard (1923). History of the White Australia Policy to 1920. Melbourne University Press. (old but still very useful)
Keith Windschuttle (2004). The White Australia Policy. Macleay Press.
[edit]External links
"Immigration Restriction Act 1901". National Archives of Australia: Documenting a Democracy. Retrieved 14 February 2006. (scan of the Act and information)
The Mabel Freer Case
Educational Resources about the White Australia Policy
Newton Barton Diary, 1894–1895 – A shipboard diary kept by able seaman Newton Barton on one of his voyages to recruit South Sea Islanders for the Queensland cane fields. Digitised and held by the State Library of Queensland.
|
|
发表于 2011-1-28 18:54:34
支持
反对
楼主
